Black Woodworkers of the 18th and 19th Centuries
.jpg)
Back around 2010, I stumbled across a reference to the African-American cabinetmaker, Thomas Day. As someone who assumed antebellum Blacks were limited to being field workers or servants, I was intrigued by his story. Additional investigation led to the realization that there were thousands of Black artisans during the era - male and female, free and enslaved.
The early American economy was heavily dependent on enslaved craftsmen to produce things for the slaveholder's personal needs and generate income when they were hired out. Some slaveholders even carried insurance on skilled workers to protect their financial interests if they escaped or died. And free Blacks of the era, though not enslaved, faced their own challenges and were often subjected to restrictive laws and/or outright hostility.
Most of these craftsmen are lost to history, but not all. Here are those I've learned of who worked with wood. Some of their stories are inspirational, others tragic. All deserve telling.
Disclaimer: These pages contains verbiage taken directly from personal quotes or historic records and reflect the attitudes of the time. My decision to present that text verbatim is not intended as an endorsement of any offensive cultural representations or language.
NOTICE: THE IMAGES ON THIS PAGE ARE THE EXCLUSIVE PROPERTY OF THE INDIVIDUALS OR INSTITUTIONS LISTED IN THE CREDITS. DUPLICATION OR REUSE IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER COPYRIGHT LAW.
Anderson, Samuel "Sambo" (c1760-1845): Samuel Anderson was an enslaved carpenter at George Washington's plantation, Mount Vernon. Born in Africa, he was described in an 1876 reminiscence published in the Virginia Gazette as, "a genuine Guinea negro, claimed to have come from a Royal family. He was of a bright mahogany color, with high cheek bones, and was stoutly made. His face was tattooed, and he wore in his ears rings which he informed me were made of real Guinea gold." Anderson helped build and repair plows, carts, wheels, door and window frames, boats, and coffins. He also worked with other enslaved craftsmen to construct the wooden mantle in the mansion's dining room.
Shortly after the Revolutionary War, he married Agnes, an enslaved field worker on the plantation; together they had seven children who were also enslaved. Per Washington's will, he was manumitted in 1801, but remained living on the property as his wife and children were part of Martha (Custis) Washington's estate, and therefore not subject to the terms of his will. Samuel was a talented hunter and fisherman, and supported himself by supplying the local residents and hotels with game. It was said that at the time of Nat Turner's insurrection, an order was issued to collect all firearms from the "negroes in Fairfax County," but that the soldier allowed the somewhat elderly Anderson to keep his beloved flintlock in order to continue hunting. Anderson was was well respected, and ultimately managed to purchase freedom for some of his children and grandchildren.
Andrews, William Wallace (c1817-1865): At the age of four, William Wallace Andrews was given to Senator Chester and Mary Ashley of Little Rock, Arkansas as a wedding present. Mrs. Ashley, who was of Puritan descent, gave him his own room, taught him to read and write, and had him tutored with her own children. Highly intelligent, he became their butler as well as a skilled pianist, gardener, and cabinetmaker. He hired himself out and operated a furniture-making business, often in conjunction with fellow slave, Asa Richmond. He was freed in 1863 and, after Little Rock fell to Union forces, opened a school for freedmen, served as intermediary between the Army and black refugees, was ordained a Methodist minister, and made vice-chairman of the 1865 Suffrage Convention.
Ball, George (born c1793): George Ball is listed as a "coloured" plane maker operating at 109 Mercer St., New York City in Longworth's City Directory of 1827 and Trow's New York City Directory of 1857. The 1850 federal census identifies him as a 57 year old plane maker, born in New Jersey.
Barjon, Dutreuil (c1799-after 1856): Dutreuil Barjon was a free Black, born in Santo Domingo (now Haiti), who came to New Orleans with his mother in 1813. Apprenticed to the Black cabinetmaker, Jean Rousseau (see entry), he became one of the most successful artisans of the era. He opened his own shop at 279 Royal St. in the French Quarter in 1822, making Grecian-style furniture. An advertisement in the 1834 Michel's New Orleans City Directory stated the shop offered "to the public a large assortment of furniture made in this city, and in the newest and most fashionable style." He later sold a line of furniture he designed and imported from Germany. Barjon began having financial difficulties mid-century and, in 1856, escaped his creditors by fleeing to France with his mistress.
Photo courtesy of Grand View Antiques and Auctions
Barjon, Dutreuil, Jr. (1823-1870): A talented cabinetmaker in his own right, Dutreuil Barjon Jr. is identified as a carpenter-joiner in New Orleans business directories of the 1840s, working for and managing his father's shop. He acquired the business in 1855 and is said to have kept it going until 1867. Interestingly, an 1866 tax assessment list identifies D. Barjon of Royal St. as a furniture repairer, not cabinetmaker.
Photo used under license from The Louisiana State Museum
Beaty, Powhatan (1837–1916): Powhatan Beaty was born into slavery in Richmond, Virginia, moved to Cincinnati in 1849, attended school, and became interested in theatre. After graduation he was apprenticed to a black cabinetmaker and worked as a turner while continuing his theatrical training. He gained his freedom in 1861 and served in the 5th United States Colored Infantry Regiment during the Civil War. Beaty received the Congressional Medal of Honor for taking command of his company during the battle of Chaffin's Farm after all the officers were either killed or wounded. After the war he resumed his career as a turner and worked in local theatre as an actor, director and playwright. He turned professional during the 1880s, touring with the African-American actress, Henrietta Vinton Davis, performing Shakespeare and other roles in venues such as Ford's Theatre in Washington DC.
Photo courtesy of The Library of Congress
Bell, James: James Bell, an enslaved carpenter from Charlottesville, Virginia, was brought to Huntsville, Alabama around 1830 to design and build three spiral staircases in the Watkins-Moore-Rhett mansion.
Photo by Robin McDonald and used by permission of Alabama Heritage magazine
Ben: The doll cradle and child's chair shown here were made for Virginia Stone in 1843 by a man named Ben, who was enslaved by her grandfather, Jordan Edwards of Sussex Courthouse, Virginia.
Photo courtesy of The American Civil War Museum, Richmond, Virginia
Berry, James (born 1853): James Berry was a chairmaker who worked in central Tennessee.
Berry, Reuben: In 1825, shopowners Willis Cowling and John Turpin of Richmond, Virginia manumitted Reuben Berry, an enslaved cabinetmaker. Cowling owned one of the first shops in Richmond to employ African-American cabinetmakers, something that angered local white journeymen and led to an attempted boycott by Richmond's Society of Journeymen Cabinet Makers in 1832. The following quote highlights the animosity, "... those who would... depreciate a free white man's labor and... place it in competition with that of a negro slave... are well met and well matched."
Boswell, Anthony (died 1893): During the 1860s, a free Black named Anthony Boswell arrived in the Dallas area, along with his family. A formerly enslaved wheelwright from Talladega, Alabama, he left that state after purchasing his freedom, and worked his way to Texas, serving as a teamster. He became a successful merchant and co-owner of a grocery store. In 1888, Boswell bought three lots in the area near Oak Cliff Cemetery, and two more the following. On those lots he ultimately built a house, store, school for Blacks, and the Elizabeth Chapel CME Church (named after his wife). Two streets in the area, Boswell and Anthony, are named in his honor.
Bowman, James Jr.: On 28 February 1846, John W. Baker of Fayetteville, North Carolina offered a reward of fifty dollars for the return of, "... my negro man JAMES, commonly called James Bowman, Jr., by trade a Cabinet Maker... a very dark mulatto, 28 years of age, about 5 feet 8 inches high... stout and well made, with a stiff beard... [has] a very peculiar expression of his eyes... is very cunning and plausible, can read and write... may have provided himself with a forged pass or free papers..."
Boyd, Henry (1802-1886): Henry Boyd was born into slavery in Carlisle, Kentucky, the son of a white man and enslaved woman. Trained as a carpenter, he earned enough money to purchase his freedom in 1826 and move to Cincinnati. Initially refused a job because of his race, he eventually obtained work as an assistant for a white house builder. By 1835 he had purchased freedom for the rest of his family and saved over $3000. He invented a corded bed known as The Boyd Bedstead, a forerunner of modern bed frames, which was patented in 1833 under the name of George Porter, a White cabinetmaker and friend, possibly to avoid the obstacles faced by many black inventors. He opened his bedstead manufactory in 1839, employing six men, five of whom were White. When other manufacturers copied his bedstead design, he began stamping every bed produced in his shop. Boyd was extremely successful, ultimately employing as many as 50 workers, black and white. His firm delivered over 1000 beds in 1844 alone and opened a showroom in 1855. He was an active member of the Underground Railroad and reportedly had a hiding place in his house for runaway slaves. His business declined at the start of the Civil War and ceased operations in 1863. After the passing of the Fifteenth Amendment, Boyd became active in local politics, supported the Republican Party, was the initial chairman for the 13th Ward, and worked for the reelection of Ulysses S. Grant. One of Boyd's bedsteads is in the collection of The Smithsonian Institution, and a children's book about him by Whitney LB Miller has been published by Lost Art Press.
Bedstead photos courtesy of The Smithsonian Institution, Museum of African American History and Culture
Photo of Henry Boyd in the public domain
Brown, Hale (born 1828): Hale Brown was a chairmaker who worked in Williamson County, Tennessee.
Brown, Solomon G. (c1829-1906): Solomon Brown, a child of former slaves, was born in Washington DC. When his father died in 1832 the family was left destitute and as a result, he never received a formal education. At the age of fifteen he began working for Samuel Morse, assisting in the installation of the first telegraph line. In 1852 he became the first African-American employee of the Smithsonian Institution when he was hired to make exhibit cases. By 1864 he was a museum assistant and in 1869 became the registrar in charge of animal specimens. Completely self-taught, Brown became an expert naturalist, illustrator, lecturer and poet. He was active in the black community, serving as a trustee of Wilberforce University and the 15th Street Presbyterian Church. He founded the Pioneer Sabbath School, was president of the National Union League, and served three consecutive one-year terms as a member of the House of Delegates under the Territorial Government of the District of Columbia.
Photo courtesy of The Smithsonian Insitution
Buckner, Lewis C. (c1856-1924): Born into slavery, Lewis Buckner had a White father and Black mother. After the Civil War, he was apprenticed to a white furniture maker named Christian Stump. He established his own cabinetmaking business in the 1870s and opened a shop in Sevierville, Tennessee on what is now Douglas Dam Road. He later branched out into house building, constructing many houses in Sevier County with Italianate and Queen Anne elements. He usually worked alone and often lived on the site during construction. His cabinetmaking skills led to the incorporation of elaborate stairways and mantels in otherwise modest homes. Nearly 20 of those structures, including his own home, still stand today. Examples of his furniture are treasured locally as prized family heirlooms.
Photo of chest courtesy of The East Tennessee Historical Society
Photo of house by Brian Stansberry, permission granted under GNU Free Documentation License v1.2
Capers, Will: An enslaved cabinetmaker, Will Capers attempted to better his fellows by operating a secret night school in Beaufort County, South Carolina. Described in the memoirs of a fellow slave as highly intelligent and self-respecting, he hoped to teach publicly after the Union forces arrived, but instead was put to work on the confiscated plantation. He later joined one of General Hunter's 'colored' regiments.
Chelor, Cesar (c1720-1784): Cesar Chelor was enslaved to the earliest documented American planemaker, Francis Nicholson. The date and place of his birth are unknown, but he was made a member of the local church in 1741 - something that typically happened at the age of 21. Originally, Chelor probably performed menial tasks such as preparing lumber and forming cutting tools. But as time passed, he learned the craft and became increasingly important to the business. It is quite possible Nicholson spent much of his time on management and sales, leaving Chelor as the actual maker of many planes marked as Nicholson products. When Nicholson died in 1753 he gave Chelor his freedom, noting in his will, "As to my Negroman Cesar Chelor considering his faithful service, his tender care, & kind & Christian carriage I do set him free to act for himself in the world & I do will and bequeath unto him his bed and beding, his shift and clothing, his bench & common bench tools, a set of chisels, one vice, one sithe & tackling & ten acres of land to be set of to him at the end of my woodland…& one third part of my timber." Chelor continued to make tools under his own stamp for another 30 years. His planes are highly prized by collectors and museums.
Photo courtesy of toolsforworkingwood.com
Charnock, Thomas (died c1840): Thomas Charnock was "a free man of color, a carpenter and cabinet-maker" who operated a shop at 16 Magazine St. in Charleston, South Carolina. He is listed as a landowner and property seller on city records as early as 1810.
Collins, Newton Isaac (1826-1903): Newton Collins was born in Birmingham, Alabama, the son of an African-American slave and her master, Silas Collins. His father manumitted him at a young age and arranged for his education and apprenticeship in carpentry. After his father's death he moved to Texas where he was re-enslaved until emancipation in 1865. He started his own business and built a number of homes and churches in the area. He became a land owner and community leader, eventually settling outside of Austin in an area called Pilot Knob, where he financed and built a school, along with a Methodist church for the community. He also paid for the teacher and minister.
Because of his dedication to education, Newton Collins Elementary School in Easton Park, Texas is named after him. It is thought to be the first modern school in Central Texas named for a former slave.
Photograph in the public domain
Cooper: A statement of slaves brought into the Commonwealth of Virginia by John B. Gilliam from the State of Tennessee on 16 April 1813 lists "One man of a black colour aged 17 years named Cooper, of the Trade of Cabinet Maker."
Craft, William (1824-1900): William Craft was enslaved in the Macon, Georgia area prior to 1850. As a skilled cabinetmaker, Craft enjoyed a small amount of autonomy not often allowed slaves. In 1846 he married his wife, Ellen, who was a lady's slave and the daughter of a slave and her master. Unhappy with their lives, they hatched a plot to escape. In 1848 Ellen, who possessed a very light complexion, masqueraded as a young white man travelling to Philadelphia for medical treatment, accompanied by William, who posed as her slave. They soon moved to Boston where Craft opened a furniture business. After passage of the Fugitive Slave Act they fled to Liverpool, England where they remained until after the Civil War. They returned to Georgia in 1870, settled outside of Savannah, purchased 1,800 acres of land, and established the Woodville Co-operative Farm School for the education and employment of newly freed slaves.Their story is told in Craft's own narrative of 1860, entitled Running A Thousand Miles for Freedom.
Culp, Patrick (1790-after 1874): Patrick Culp, identified in the 1865 New York census as a "mulatto chairmaker," was born in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania. He lived and worked in Carlisle, making furniture and doing carpentry. From 1830-1844 he owned part of a lot on North Bedford Street, and most likely ran his cabinet shop at that location. It must have been at least fairly successful, as Culp ran an advertisement in October 1834 offering a reward for the return of his indentured apprentice, Augustus Lilly, who ran off with another of his employees. And in 1836, another apprentice named Franklin Armstrong, a "boy of colour," set fire to his shop, a nearby stable, and Culp's house. Records indicate that Culp did work on the local Episcopal church between 1828 and 1830, sued a customer in 1838 for unpaid work, and did work on a sleigh in 1839.
In 1853, Culp was sued for a debt, and as a result of the judgement, his, “lot of ground in Carlisle containing 60 feet in front by 120 feet in depth having thereon erected a two-story weather boarded house, a two-story shop, stable and other out houses,” was sold. He left Carlisle shortly after and by 1859 was living and working in Brooklyn, New York. An 1864 business directory lists “Patrick Culp (col.) cabinetmaker” at 164 S. 6th Street. He was still living in Brooklyn as late as 1875, but no death record for him has been found.
Cyrus: On 25 November 1796 a Winchester, Virginia newspaper published an article about a formerly enslaved man named Cyrus who was well known and respected as a woodcarver, saying, "This is to acquaint the public, that all kinds of wooden TRAYS and LADLES are manufactured by CYRUS, a black man, who by indefatigable industry during his servitude, acquired a sum sufficient to liberate himself, by making and vending the above-mentioned articles. He served his latter master, Rueben Triplet, near thirty years, to whom he paid fifty pounds for his discharge. His behavior and industry recommend him in a peculiar manner to the notice of the public, who no doubt will afford him every encouragement in the laudable profession he has adopted to procure his livelihood."
David: John Watson operated a cabinetmaking business at 21 Tradd Street in Charleston from at least 1790 until his death in 1812. After Watson's death, a newspaper advertisement by auctioneers Campbell & Milliken revealed that among the “best Workmen” in Watson’s shop was an enslaved furnituremaker named David: "…will be sold before our vendue store (auction house), on TUESDAY, the 23rd of February, A NEGRO FELLOW, named David, a Cabinet Maker by Trade, belonging to the Estate of John Watson, late of Charleston, deceased."
Day, Devereux (born 1833): Devereux Day was the son of Thomas Day (see entry). A free black, he worked in his father's shop c1849-1851 before being sent to the Wesleyan Academy in Massachusetts, a religious training school operated by abolitionist Methodists. He is said to have been careless with money and was a disappointment to his father, who in a letter to his eldest daughter said, "Devereux, I am sorry to know, was the worst boy I ever had to manage in my life." Nonetheless, the chair shown here which carries the chalk inscription, 'D.J. Day' under the seat, indicates he possessed considerable skill when he applied himself.
Photo courtesy of Neal Auction Company
Day, John [Sr.] (died 1832): John Day, father of Thomas Day (see entry) was a free black cabinetmaker who worked in and around Dinwiddie County, Virginia. His son, John Jr. reported that he was the illegitimate son of a White plantation mistress and her coachman. He may have had a Quaker education and possibly received his training and worked in the Petersburg, Virginia furniture industry which flourished after the Revolutionary War. He was quite successful, managed to acquire considerable wealth, and was influential in the community.
Day, John [Jr.] (1797-1859: Brother of Thomas Day (see entry), John Day [Jr.] was a free Black cabinetmaker who became part of the movement to have African Americans escape injustice by moving to Liberia. He became a Baptist minister in 1821 and moved to Liberia in 1830. He became the pastor of Providence Church in the Liberian capital, established Day's Hope School, was a delegate to their constitutional convention, a signer of the same, and chief justice of their supreme court.
Day, Thomas (c1801–1861): Thomas Day is the most famous black cabinetmaker in American history. Born free in Virginia, he moved to Milton, North Carolina around 1823. An excellent craftsman, he established one of the largest woodworking businesses in the state, providing furniture, interior woodwork, and coffins. Much of his work shows an definite African influence even though Day himself never visited that continent. He was well educated, held stock in the local bank, and owned substantial property including slaves. Highly successful, he enjoyed a respect not usually afforded blacks in antebellum North Carolina. This was demonstrated in 1830, when he returned to Virginia and married a free woman. State law of the time forbad free blacks from moving into North Carolina, and the citizens of Milton, along with the state's Attorney General, petitioned the General Assembly to waive the law in her case. The fact this bill passed is testimony to Day's reputation. Despite this unusual treatment, Day still lived under the same restrictive conditions as other free blacks in North Carolina, including the inability to obtain proper educations for his children, who he sent to Massachusetts for schooling. A great deal of legend exists about Thomas Day, but extant examples of his work prove his skill and historical records document his great success. A statue in his honor stands outside the North Carolina Museum of History.
Photo of secretary courtesy of Neal Auction Company
Photo of statue courtesy of The North Carolina Museum of History
Dixon, Haywood (1826-1889): Haywood Dixon was an enslaved carpenter who was owned by Henry Aldridge Dixon and worked at Sandy Loam Plantation in Greene County, North Carolina. Contemporary accounts state that "Uncle Haywood" was held in such high esteem by his slaveholder that he and his family were buried in the (White) Dixon family graveyard. Unfortunately, that "high esteem" wasn't enough to merit tombstones so the Black Dixons lie in unmarked graves.
Photo in the public domain
Dolliole, Jean-Louis (1779-1861): Jean-Louis Dolliole was a free Black born of a White father and mixed race mother who lived in New Orleans and was identified on an 1822 census as a cabinetmaker and planter. He later branched out to home building, specializing in the Creole Cottage style. Many of his structures still stand in the French Quarter, including this house on Pauger Street .
Photo by Infrogmation, permission granted under GNU Free Documentation License v1.2
Dortch, Reuben Rainey (born c1814): In 1938, Mr. Charles Green Dortch, an 81 year old resident of Little Rock, Arkansas was interviewed for the Arkansas Slave Narratives. He described his father, Reuben, as a, "mulatto carpenter, chair, coffin and basket maker, who earned a living as such after the peace." Prior to emancipation he was enslaved by a Colonel Dortch of Dallas County and, as boss of the tool room, was a 'first man' on the plantation.
Ellison, Stewart (1834-1899): Stewart Ellison was born enslaved to Abner P. Neal of Beaufort County, North Carolina. At the age of thirteen he was apprenticed to serve a term of seven years to learn the carpentry trade from Marrs (Marse) Newton (see entry), a "free mullato" mechanic in Washington, North Carolina. During his free time he pursued an education and learned to read and write.
In 1852 he moved to Raleigh to work construction, possibly hired out by his owner, to the carpentry contracting firm of Conrad and Williams. After emancipation, he became an entrepreneur, first as a grocer and merchant, but by 1867 had returned to his trade and became a builder of great local renown. He built schools, hospitals and offices for the Freedmen’s Bureau and other agencies, and “gained quite a reputation by the superior workmanship." Ellison also entered political leadership and civic life, serving in the North Carolina Freedmen’s Conventions if 1865/1866, and an officer of the North Carolina Equal Rights League. He was one of the first black men elected to Raleigh's board of commissioners, represented Wake County in the state legislature for multiple terms, and served on the board of directors of the State Penitentiary.
Photo used by permission of The City of Raleigh Museum
Evans, Wilson Bruce (1824-1898) and Henry (1817-1886): The Evans brothers were born free in Fayetteville, North Carolina and learned the trade of cabinet and carriage making as young men. Henry (the eldest) was operating a cabinet shop in Hillsborough, North Carolina before they both moved north in 1854 and settled in Oberlin, Ohio, a town with a thriving black community that represented about 20% of the population. They started their own cabinetmaking and upholstery business and became valued members of the commercial and educational communities. The brothers were also active in the Underground Railroad and participated in the famous Oberlin-Wellington Rescue of 1858, in which John Price, a fugitive slave, was captured. Black and white residents joined together to rescue Price and transport him to Canada. Thirty-seven people including the Evans brothers were indicted for breaking the Fugitive Slave Law and spent 84 days in jail until prosecutors dropped charges against them. When the Civil War began, Wilson Evans, who was light skinned, passed as white and enlisted in an all-white unit of the Union Army. His house is still owned by his descendants and is a National Historic Landmark.
Photo used under license from Oberlin College
Fort, Henry (died 1876): According to a local history published in 1913, the town of Garner, North Carolina owes its origins to "an old negro by the name of Henry Fort" who purchased 52 acres of land adjoining the North Carolina Railroad just after the Civil War. Originally a (possibly enslaved) laborer on the farm of William Fort, he operated a woodshop and supplied residents with "bureaus, wardrobes, and almost any piece of furniture [they] wished." An estate inventory dated 14 October 1876 lists among the assets two beds, four chairs, a chest, bureau, candle stand, looking glass, and cupboard. His furniture is rumored to be owned by a number of local families, but the town historian has failed to locate any.